b'Bites and stings occur frequently and most are relatively minor. Even though they may be painful, they are not likely to cause serious problems. However, venom from some Australian snakes, spiders and certain marine animals is lethal and can cause life-threatening injuries.Venom is normally injected just beneath the skin rather than directly into the bloodstream. It then moves slowly into the tissues before entering the bloodstream.Generally the onset of effects are slow providing the patient keeps still.Animal and human bites should always be referred for medical assessment because the bites are high in harmful bacteria. Even if the wound has been thoroughly cleaned and dressed, the patient must be protected against serious infection such as tetanus.If the patient develops an allergic reaction to a bite or sting, breathing and circulation could be seriously affected. The amount of oxygen reaching the heart, lungs and brain may be severely reduced due to swelling and death may occur if medical assistance is not sought immediately(refer to Anaphylaxis on page 184).How to ManageThere are four main first aid management techniques for dealing with specific types of bites and stings:Pressure Immobilisation (Category 1)Ice/Cold Compress (Category 2)Heat/Hot Water (Category 3) Vinegar (Category 4)DRSABCD is the primary management of all envenomation.\\ ManagementBites & Stings From:CommentCategory Pressure- Snake/Sea Snake Pressure Immobilisation is1 Immobilisation - Funnel Web Spider used to slow the movement - Blue Ringed Octopus of venom.- Cone ShellIce / Cold-Insects: Bee, Wasp, Scorpion,Ice/Cold Compress relieves pain2 Compress Ant, Centipede and swelling by reducing the flow - Red Back Spider of blood to the site of the bite or - White Tail Spider sting.- Bush Tick Pressure immobilisation if allergic -Common Jellyfish, Hydroidsto bite/sting.and CoralsHeat /- Stonefish Heat/Hot Water is an effective3 Hot Water - Bull Rout treatment for minimising pain.- Stingray- Other Spine Fish- Non Tropical BluebottleVinegar - Tropical Jellyfish Vinegar inactivates the discharge of4 - Box Jellyfish stinging capsules (nematocysts) which - Irukandji prevents further injection of venom. Vinegar cannot relieve pain from venom already injected.154 Bites and Stings'